A Historical Examination of the Environmental Impacts of Charcoal Consumption in Khorasan: Qajar and Pahlavi Eras

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Assistant Professor of History , Department of History, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

2 Assistant Professor of History, Department of History, Payam Noor University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
Fuel has long been one of humanity's fundamental needs, used for cooking, heating, and lighting. Firewood and charcoal played a significant role in meeting this demand. In the late Qajar period, charcoal became an essential fuel in Khorasan, particularly in major cities such as Mashhad and Birjand, where it was considered an important commodity. The provision of this fuel was influenced by the region's climate and geographical location, with the surrounding vegetation being crucial for its supply. Charcoal became a basic necessity for families, especially because of its use in traditional heating systems like korsi (a heated table covered with a quilt). The severity of winters further increased the importance of charcoal. However, the continued use of charcoal left significant environmental impacts over time.
 
Materials and Methods
This study employs a historical research approach through library-based methods, relying on resources such as reports, press publications, and documents. It adopts a descriptive-analytical method to investigate the negative environmental impacts of charcoal usage in Khorasan, with a focus on Mashhad and Birjand, during the Qajar and Pahlavi periods. The study aims to answer the following questions: What environmental impacts did the use of charcoal in Khorasan have during the Qajar and Pahlavi eras? When were environmental preservation measures initiated in Khorasan, and how were they implemented?
 
Findings
In rural areas, firewood was inexpensive and widely used. However, in urban areas, it became a valuable commodity. During the Constitutional Revolution period (Mashrooteh), municipal offices (Baladiyeh) began to play a significant role in securing fuel for cities. In large cities like Mashhad, the high population turned fuel provision into an economic challenge. Wild plants and fruit trees became additional sources of fuel, and their abundance reduced prices, while scarcity drove prices up. Suppliers of firewood were often forced to travel to more distant areas to meet demand. For example, juniper firewood was brought in from remote regions such as Mazdaran, while pistachio wood was harvested from the slopes near Pas-Kamar, south of Sarakhs, and along the Kashafrud River.
Khorasan’s forests were notable for their resources, including juniper forests in the Kopet Dag Mountains, Hezar-Masjed, and Choolayi-Khaneh, as well as pistachio forests stretching from Sarakhs to Kalat. In the Qaenat region, remnants of ancient forests still existed in remote areas like Moosaviyeh, Sar-Chah-Amari, and Sahlabad up to Nehbandan. Similarly, the Rashthkhar and Kiberkooh forests in the Khaf region had substantial vegetation cover.
Charcoal consumption in Khorasan was largely driven by local customs, soil conditions, and climates, especially the widespread use of korsi heating systems. However, urbanization and population growth created challenges for sustainable exploitation of these resources. Additionally, foreign powers influenced fuel and charcoal usage in Khorasan. For instance, Russian activities in northern Khorasan and the British presence in southern Khorasan increased fuel consumption due to their military and logistical needs.
The extensive use of charcoal left negative environmental consequences in the region. During the Qajar period, overuse led to the depletion of pistachio forests in areas like Shurcheh, Agh-Darband, and Pas-Kamar. Excessive deforestation for charcoal production was notably observed by Iranian and foreign travelers, such as Dalmani, who described the environmental damage along the route from Ashgabat to Mashhad. The destruction of pistachio forests caused shortages and rising charcoal prices in Mashhad, prompting charcoal producers to venture farther afield to regions like Sarakhs, Zorabad, Khaf forests, Turshiz, and Kooh-Sorkh. However, deforestation rendered large parts of Khorasan's forest resources scarce, and local residents sometimes resisted the transportation of charcoal to urban centers.
In Birjand, unchecked exploitation brought the forests of Chahak and Moosaviyeh to the brink of disappearance. Around Tabas, forests of wild almond and baneh (wild pistachio) were largely converted into charcoal, often to fuel opium production. This charcoal was then transported by drivers to cities like Yazd, Isfahan, Kerman, and other parts of Khorasan. The adverse effects of overexploitation became evident in the late Qajar period. However, it was during the Pahlavi era when measures aimed at controlling charcoal production and preventing environmental degradation began to be formally introduced and implemented.
 
Discussion and Conclusion
The provision of firewood and charcoal, as one of the primary needs of the inhabitants of Khorasan, was closely tied to the region's vegetation and forests. Population growth and deforestation, starting from the late Qajar period, led to significant environmental challenges. Multiple strategies were devised in Khorasan to protect the environment from excessive charcoal usage, implemented in four main ways. Legislation and Governance: The first strategy was the drafting of laws after the Constitutional Revolution, which led to the establishment of forestry administrations and the prohibition of tree cutting. Following the revolution, forest management was placed under the Ministry of Public Benefits. Organizations such as the Northern Forests Administration and the Forest Board were established. In Khorasan, forests came under government protection and were leased through five-year contracts. Agreements were made with local individuals to safeguard the forests. For instance, the forestry mandate of Abdullah Arabi Bikoordi from the village of Nafta Kalat-e-Naderi is an example. Between 1955 and 1958, due to cold winters and difficulties in providing charcoal, proper forest management gained attention. During this period, the city of Mashhad sourced part of its charcoal needs from the forests of Bojnord. Alternative Fuels: Another solution was the use of alternative fuels, such as coal, which only became a serious consideration during the harsh winter of 1927 when charcoal shortages tripled its price. The use of oil as a fuel faced logistical challenges due to transportation issues. Forestry Organizations: The Ministry of Public Benefits established the Northern Forests Organization. The agricultural administration of the Ninth Province announced a ban on cutting trees from all forests for commercial purposes. In regions such as Kiberkouh in Khaf, forest rangers were appointed to oversee contracts. Significant steps were taken to preserve Khorasan's forests, particularly its pistachio groves. Armed forest guards were formed to prevent tree cutting and address legal violations. Forestry offices were set up in Sarbisheh and Tabas, although the contradictory and inconsistent actions of the Tabas office attracted criticism. In 1963, with the nationalization of forests and pastures, tree cutting was officially prohibited. Improvement of Traditional Charcoal-Making Methods: Another measure was reforming traditional charcoal production techniques. Training classes were held for charcoal producers. Despite these efforts, the excessive and unregulated use of charcoal and delays in forest conservation led to the depletion of forests in Khorasan by the final decades of the Pahlavi era. By then, most of the region's charcoal needs were supplied from the forests of Bojnord. In recent decades, the use of charcoal for smoking water pipes (hookahs) has continued to contribute to environmental degradation, potentially leading to consequences similar to those of the Pahlavi period.

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